Persian fallow deer

Appearance

Persian fallow deer are physically larger than fallow deer, their antlers bigger and less palmated. They are nearly extinct today, inhabiting only a small habitat in Khuzestan, southern Iran, two rather small protected areas in Mazandaran , an area of northern Israel and an island in Lake Urmia in north-western Iran and in some parts of Iraq. They were formerly found from Mesopotamia and Egypt to the Cyrenaica and Cyprus. Their preferred habitat is open woodland. They are bred in zoos and parks in Iran, Israel, and Germany today. Since 1996 they have been gradually and successfully reintroduced from a breeding center in the Carmel, into the wild in northern Israel, and more than 650 of them now live in the Galilee, Mount Carmel areas and the Brook of Sorek. Due to the rarity of this species, little information exists on their behavior and social structure in the wild; therefore, most biological information comes from captive-bred or reintroduced deer, which may not present an accurate representation of the natural population.

Distribution

Persian fallow deer were formerly found in Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and eastern Turkey. By 1875, the range of the Persian fallow deer was restricted to southwestern and western Iran, having disappeared from the rest of its range. The species, thought to be extinct by the 1940s, was subsequently rediscovered as a population of approximately 25 individuals in the Khuzestan Province in Iran in 1956. Today, the only surviving indigenous populations are in the Des Lacs National Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Iran.Due to these factors, the overall population of the Persian fallow deer lingered at approximately 250 individuals in 2005, and suffers from the effects of small population size, notably inbreeding. Genetic variation is a major concern in small populations because inbreeding can cause further loss of genetic variation, an effect known as inbreeding depression. For Persian fallow deer, there is little genetic variation for the entire species because all the animals that currently exist were bred from a relatively small surviving group that was found living in the wild; genetic studies have shown that the individuals alive today are similar in 95% of their genes.The Allee effect may lead to a higher extinction probability by causing a crash in the population if the population is subject to unstable fluctuations in size. Because the Allee effect can arise from variability in the numbers of males versus females, sex ratio plays an important role in extinction probability in the Persian fallow deer’s population. Having more females than males increases the chances of species survival due to the fact that one male can fertilize multiple females and thus fewer males are needed. However, having too many female deer may lead to more intense polygynous mating behaviors. Because males in a polygynous mating system are each responsible for fertilizing multiple females, the loss of a single reproducing male would reduce the reproductive output of several females in a given breeding season; in a comparable monogamous system, loss of a single male only impacts the reproductive capacity of one female. For this reason, the population growth rate of a polygynous system is subject to more fluctuations from year to year than in a monogamous system, and such variation in growth rate could lead to higher chances of extinction. Therefore, an optimal balance in sex ratio is an important component of the reintroduction of the Persian fallow deer.

The reintroduction process also depends on the availability of breeding sources, which are captive populations that are permitted to breed in a safe environment, and the number of animals that can be periodically removed from these sources for reintroduction. Because poor sex ratios and low proportions of breeding individuals are a major cause of extinction in very small populations, the size of each group removed should be large enough to maintain a low extinction probability but small enough to maintain the core breeding population. Monte Carlo Leslie matrix growth models were used to determine the maximum sustainable yield, the greatest number of individuals that can be removed from the breeding pool to maximize the reintroduced population’s size while allowing the breeding core to recover between each reintroduction event, and the projected population growth after reintroduction. The removal of 28% of female deer from the breeding source in the first year of reintroduction and then the removal of approximately 12 females during each subsequent year is sufficient to lower the extinction probability due to demographic stochasticity in each release to less than 1% over 100 years while maintaining a breeding source size of 250 deer.

Status

The first actions taken to help conserve the Persian fallow deer were the designation of the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge around the site of this animal’s rediscovery by the Iranian Game and Fish Department. The reintroduction of Persian fallow deer is of religious importance to Israel because of the initiative by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority to restore Biblically-named mammals that had been lost. Due to the lack of ecological data available regarding the Persian fallow deer , planning for the species’ reintroduction without this vital background information has proven difficult.Currently, there are two populations of Persian fallow deer born native to the wild which are located in the Karkeh and Dez wildlife refuges in Iran; additionally, there are several reintroduced populations in Iran and Israel. As a result of conservation efforts thus far, the current world population of the Persian fallow deer is estimated to be approximately 365 individuals. Due to the most pressing concerns affecting the current populations of Persian fallow deer, future conservation efforts should focus on genetic studies, protecting the habitat of the deer, and releasing more deer into the reintroduction areas.

Behavior

The behavioral balance between timidity and boldness in Persian fallow deer is vital in establishing a long-lasting species reintroduction. Timidity describes the anti-predator behavior exhibited in the deer that have been exposed to perceived threats from predators and have adopted a more careful and hesitant disposition when navigating their surroundings. Though the increased hesitance of deer raised in the wild often reduces dispersal rates, this timidity can have a positive effect on a Persian fallow deer’s ability to survive in the wild by limiting a deer's risk of being poached or preyed upon. Boldness refers to the risk-taking attitude shown by deer that are willing to capitalize on perceived opportunities and have a reduced concern for the consequences of such actions. The deer that are more daring generally manifest a greater degree of population dispersal in the wild. In Persian fallow deer reintroductions, securing a balance between these two factors can prove difficult, especially when information on population dynamics and individual and group behavior is limited.

The reintroduction of Persian fallow deer relies on individuals that have been raised in captivity that do not possess the timidity and anti-predator precautions that their wild counterparts exhibit. Direct human intervention in captive animals greatly reduces the difficulties and threats that would otherwise be present in the wild. This commonly results in a dulled wariness of potential predators and thus an increase in risk-taking behavior and dispersal rate. When comparing reintroduced deer from breeding facilities that were subjected to substantial human interaction and from facilities that had significantly less human interaction, deer that experienced less human interaction had an 80% higher survival rate than those exposed to more human interaction. Therefore, if Persian fallow deer populations are to later function in reintroduction programs, exposure to humans should be kept at a minimum to increase the deer’s probability of survival.

Reproduction

In 1957-1958, a wild pair of pureblood fawns were captured and brought to the Von Opel Zoo in Germany, where the wild female gave birth to its first pureblood captive female in 1960; however, the wild male partner did not survive long enough to produce a second fawn. From 1964 to 1967, the Iranian Game and Fish Department sent three expeditions to the Kareheh area near the rediscovery site, during which three males and three females were captured to initiate the species’ conservation at the Dasht-e-Naz and Kareheh Wildlife Refuges. Israel initiated a reintroduction program with three pureblood Persian fallow deer from the Von Opel Zoo in Germany and an additional four deer translocated from Dasht-e-Naz, which were taken to a breeding enclosure in the Carmel Hai-Bar Nature Reserve.

Evolution

They were introduced to Cyprus in the pre-pottery Neolithic , if not earlier. They occurred in significant numbers at the aceramic Neolithic sites of Khirokitia, Kalavasos-Tenta, Cap Andreas Kastros, and Ais Yiorkis, and were important through the Cypriot Bronze Age. A Greek legend, related by Aelianus ca 200 AD, recounts how the deer of the Lebanon and Mount Carmel reached Cyprus by swimming the Mediterranean, the head of each animal placed on the back of the deer in front of it.

Deer from Epirus in Greece are said to have reached Corfu in the same manner. While red deer are known to cross open water in their seasonal migrations, for example on the Scottish islands, this behaviour is unknown in fallow deer.The first actions taken to help conserve the Persian fallow deer were the designation of the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge around the site of this animal’s rediscovery by the Iranian Game and Fish Department. The reintroduction of Persian fallow deer is of religious importance to Israel because of the initiative by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority to restore Biblically-named mammals that had been lost. Due to the lack of ecological data available regarding the Persian fallow deer , planning for the species’ reintroduction without this vital background information has proven difficult.